DiscussWorldIssues - Socio-Economic Religion and Political Uncensored Debate - The Medieval Chola Empire and it's relations with Malaysia, Indonesia & Thailand

Author: Virarajendra

The Medieval Chola Empire and it's relations with Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore & Thailand - Part 2

Under Construction

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......Kidaaratharaiyan Keyamaanikka valanaattu pattanak kuutraththu Cholakulavalli pattinaththu eduppiththa Rajendra Chola Perumpallikkum, Rajaraja Perumpallikkum pallisanthamaana uurkal......"

Small Leidan Copper Plates of Kulothuga Chola - 1, Bauthamum Thamilum by Mayilai S.Venkatasamy (Appendix)
Epigraphia Indica - Vol XXII, Page 267-281

"......'Chola Perumpalli Naayakar' - 'The Nayakar (Lord Buddha) of (or dedicated to) the Chola Perumpalli'. Obviously this votive image was meant for the Chola Perumpalli which was a celebrated Buddhist Vihare erected in Nagapattinam by the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya (in Sumatra) and named after the reigning Chola king Kulothunga - 1.

".......'Chola Perumpalli Alvaar' - 'The God (Lord Buddha) of the Chola Perumpalli'. Evidently the purpose of this inscription is to announce that the votive image of the Buddha belonged to the buddhist monastry built by the Sailendra and endowed by Rajendra Chola - 1

The Nagapattinam and other Buddhist Bronzes in the Madras Museum - by T.N. Ramachandran, Joint Director-General of Archaeology, India, Page 124 & 92
Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, Vol VII, No. 1 - 1954

".......Rajendra Chola Perumpalli Akkasaalaip Perumpalli Alvaar koyilukku thiru utsavam eluntarula Alvaar ivvalvarai eluntaruluvittaar Chirutaavur Nalankunaakara Udaiyaar, Swasti Sri Pathinen Vishayattukkum Akkasaalaikal Naayakar....."

An Inscription on the pedestal of the bronze Buddha image of Mr & Mrs D.Rockefeller - 3rd collection,
International character of Nagapattinam Merchants during the Chola period.
Journal of East-West Maritime Relations - by Prof N.Karashima & Dr.Y.Subbarayalu, Vol 3 - 1994

Discussions

In the first reference above, my view is that the 'Chola Perumpalli Nayakar' was not named after Kulothunga Chola - 1, but after Rajendra Chola - 1 in view of the fact the Smaller Leidan Plates which was issued by Kulothunga Chola - 1 and which mentions about Rajendra Chola Perumpalli doesnot give any hint that it was built by him. Further it doesnot refer to it as 'Kulothunga Chola Perumpalli' but only as "Rajendra Chola Perumpalli". In this instance we should remember that Kulothunga Chola had the name as Rajendra Chola only when he was a heir-apparent of Chola country and the ruler of Chalukya Vengi country.

Emperor Sangirama Vijayothungavarman ascends the Sri Vijaya throne (A.D.1015 -1024)

The Emperor Maara Vijayothungavarman of Sri Vijaya empire demised in A.D.1015 and was succeeded by his son Sangirama Vijayothungavrman (A.D.1015-1024). The good trade and diplomatic relations between the Chola empire and the Sri Vijaya empire existed upto the end of Maara Vijayothungavarman's rule.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

Marriage of Airlangga with the Sri Vijayan Princess

In the year A.D.1021 Emperor Sangirama Vijayotungavarman of Sri Vijaya in Sumatra gave her daughter Sangirama Vijaya Dharma-Prasadotungadevi in marriage to king Airlanga of East Java. From the year of their marriage in A.D.1021 onwards, she was made the "Mahamanthiri" (the chief minister) of the kingdom of East Java by king Airlangga, and was second only to the king Airlangga in controlling power and authority in the kingdom.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......Swasti Saka warsatita 943 (943 + 78= A.D.1021) karthikamasa......Sri Maharaja rake halu Sri Lokeswara Dharmmawangsa Airlanggananta Vikramotunggadeva tinadah rakryyan mahamantri i hino Sri Sangraama Vijaya Dharmaprasadotunggadevi......'

Inscription of Airlangga from Cane in East- Java
Oud-Javaansche Ookonden - Nagelaten Transscripties, van wijlen Dr. J.L,Brandes, Uitgegeven door Dr. N.J.Krom - page 120.

"........Swasti Saka warsatita 959 (959 + 78 = A.D.1037) marggasiramasa......Sri Maharaja rake halu Sri Lokeswara Dharmawangsa Airlanggananta Vikramotunggadeva inadah rakryan mahamantri i hino Sri Sangiraama Vijaya Dharmaprasadotunggadevi......"

Inscription of Airlangga from Kamalaggan in East- Java
Oud-Javaansche Ookonden - Nagelaten Transscripties, van wijlen Dr. J.L.Brandes, Uitgegeven door Dr. N.J.Krom - page 120.

Discussion:

Many Indonesian Scholars opt to go for te Reading version - 2 of the Pucangan Inscription (also known as Calcutta Stone Inscription) as it has been a re-study of this inscription by Dr J.L.Brandes & Dr N.J Krom, and from same we note Airlangga became a king of East Java in the year A.D.1019.

It is very clear in the year A.D.1021 if we go by Reading version - 1 of Pukangan Inscription at an age of 31 years Airlangga wouldnot had a daughter old enough to occupy the post of Rakryaan ma ha mantri i Hino (that is as a person who had the controlling power in the kingdom only next to the King), and if we go by Reading version - 2 at an age of 21 years to Airlangga this theory totally fails. So it is very clear that Sri Sangiraama Vijaya Dharmaprasadotunggadevi was not the daughter of Airlangga as held by some Scholars, but his Queen who was given the supreme powers by the king only next to him.

Thus Airlangga married the daughter of Sangrama Vijayotungavarman and made her as his first royal consort. The name of the Sri Vijaya emperor the Sangiraama Vijayotungavarman the successor to Mara Vijayotungavarman does not appear in any historical Documents or Inscriptions of Indonesia, but only in the Chola Meikeerththi (True Glory) of the Rajendra Chola - 1 that too at the contemporary period when the name Sri Sangiraama Vijaya Dharmaprasadotunggadevi appears for the first time in the Airlangga's Inscriptions from A.D.1021

The strain in the Chola - Sri Vijaya relationship

At Sri Vijaya Emperor Sangirama Vijayotungavarman unlike during the period of his predecessors the good hostilities that existed between these two empires broke. This probably occured due to him not withstanding to see the flourishing Chola trade in the South-East Asian region and with China, as against the trade of Sri Vijaya empire in these regions. He imposed some drastic trade laws and heavy taxes detrimental to the already flourishing Chola trade especially in the in the kingdom of Kadarem among the Indian colony of traders in the Bujang valley region which was under the sway of the Sri Vijaya empire.

The above course of action would have been instituted by the Emperor Sangirama Vijayotungavarman of Sri Vijaya through his viceroy at Kadarem namely the king Linggi Johan, which would have caused much damages to the flourishing Chola trade at Kadarem and caused much anger to the already aggressive and imperialistic Cholas.

The great Chola war expedition to South - East Asia

The imense strain in the Chola - Sri Vijaya relationship caused Rajendra Chola - 1 to send a large naval expedition excessively powerfull in arms with a large fleet of ships to South - East Asia in the year A.D.1022 lead by his grandson (i.e. his son Rajendra Chola - 2's son)

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......Alai kadal naduvul pala Kalam seluththi,
Sangirama-Vijayothungapanman akiya Kadaaraththu arasanai
vaakayam porukadal kumba kariyodum ahappaduththu, urimaiyil pirakkiya peru nithi pirakkamum aarththu,
avan aha Nagar poar tholil vaasalil vichathara thoranamum, muththolir punai manip puthavamum,
kanakamani kathavamum - nirai Sri Vijayamum,
thuraineer Pannaiyum, nanmalai uur eyil thon Malaiyurum,
aal kadal ahal sool Maa-Yirudingamum, kalangaa valvinai Ilangaasokamum,
kaappuru nirai punal Maa-Pappaalamum, kaavalam purisai Mevili-Bangkamum,
vilaip panthurudai Valaipanthurum, kalaamuthi kadunthiral Ilaamurithesamum,
kalai thakkoar pukalth Thalai-Thakkolamum, theethamar valvinai Maa-Thamaalingamum,
thenakkalar polil Maa-Nakkavaaramum, thodukadal kaaval kadumuran Kadaaramum,
maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

The capture of the Nicobar islands by Chola forces

The mighty Chola forces crossed seas and reached Nakkavarem the present Nicobar island which was captured and brought under their rule. It appears this island was made the centre of their operations for their capture of Kadarem and Sri Vijaya.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......thenakkalar polil Maa-Nakkavaaramum......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

It further appears the Chola naval fleet was divided into three units from here, and one expedition headed towards Kadarem under the command of the grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1 (son of Rajendra Chola - 2). The second expedition headed direct to the kingdom of Sri Vijaya in the south-east direction around Sumatra of Indonesia under the Chola General Chola Brammaraayer, and the third expedition direct to Talaitakkolam under another Chola General direct to South Thailand

The above are confirmed by the following References:

Chola forces capture Sri Vijaya in Sumatra

The valiant Chola fleet reached the kingdom of Sri Vijaya also known as Sri Vijayapura in the island of Suvarnadvipa alias Suvarnapura - the island Sumatra, and defeated the (overlord) king of Kadarem (Kataka) - who was the Emperor of the mighty Sri Vijaya empire the Sangirama Vijayotungavarman (A.D.1020-1023) of the Sailendra dynasty. The Chola forces captured his fortress Malayagiri at his capital city the Vijayanagara.

He was taken captive along with the elephants of his glorious army, large heaps of treasures and the Vidyaadhara Thoranam (arch) at the war-gate of his extensive capital city the Sri Vijaya (nagara) with the jewelled-wicket gate adorned with great splendour and the gate of large jewels. His extensive kingdom of Sri Vijaya which covered approximately the present South Sumatra, Lampung and Benkulu provinces of the island Sumatra came under the fold of the mighty Chola empire, and a Chola Prince was appointed as the viceroy of this kingdom. However the family members and daughter of Sangramavijayotungvarman went to West Java for safety. The forces now directed their attention on territories which were under the sway of the Sri Vijaya empire.

The above are confirmed by the following References

"......Sangirama-Vijayothungapanman akiya Kadaaraththu arasanai
vaakayam porukadal kumba kariyodum ahappaduththu, urimaiyil pirakkiya peru nithi pirakkamum aarththu,
avan aha Nagar poar tholil vaasalil vichathara thoranamum, muththolir punai manip puthavamum,
kanakamani kathavamum, nirai Sri Vijayamum......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Mevilibangkam adjacent to South Sumatra

The Chola forces next crossed over and captured Mevilibankam the present Banka island neighbouring the south-east coastel region of Sumatra opposite the Sri Vijaya kingdom. The ruling king of this region is not known. However the Mevilibankam too was under th sway of Sri Vijaya empire duing this period.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......kaavalam purisai Mevili-Bangkamum.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Malaiyuur in Sumatra

The forces from here moved into Malaiyur (Melayuu) in the mainland of Sumatra, a mountainous region approximately comprising the present Jambi and Perkanbaru states of central Sumatra which too they captured and brought under their control. The city fortress of Malaiyur was located at the Jambi proper adjacent to the river Batanghari.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......nanmalai uur eyil thon Malaiyuurum,.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

".......Saavakam erinthu Arumanam poruthu sinthath thakarththu Malayuurin uruva purisai thalli
Koaham nekilnthu kulayumpadi Kadaarem kollum oru Cholan marukaa !......'

Kulothungan Pillai Thamil - by Ottakkooththar, edited by T.S.Gangatharan, verse 92 Thanjavur Sarawathi Mahal Library publication

Chola forces capture Pannai in Sumatra

They continued with their naval expedition and captured Pannai (Pane). in the north of Sumatra. Here they set a garrison probably for the protetion of the interests of the numerous Chola traders in this region. The Chola army thereafter crossed seas.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......thuraineer Pannaiyum.......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Ilamuidesam in Sumatra

From here they proceeded to Ilamuridesam (Lemuri) approximatly covering the present Acheh province in the extreme north of the island Sumatra, conquered the territory and brought that too under their rule.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......kalaamuthi kadunthiral Ilaamurithesamum .......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

The Chola army thereafter crossed seas and reached Kadarem to join the earlier division of their army lead by the grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

Chola forces capture the great Kadaaram in north-west peninsular Malaysia

The Cholas fleet lead by the grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1, reached the kingdom of Kadaaram and landed at the estuary of Perak River and reached the Ganganagar (Kataka-nagara) it's capital city. They defeated the ruling king of Kadarem the Linga Yohan (Linggi Johan) the viceroy of the Emperor Sangiraama Vijayotungavarman of Sri Vijaya, who met his death in this war, captured and his city the Ganga Nagar. Later he appointed a Chola viceroy at Kadaaram to rule the kingdom which now became a part of the Chola empire. The grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1 married Putri Gangga the daughter of the king of Kadaaram the Linga Yohan. This war appears not to have disturbed the Indian colony of traders in the Bujang valley region in th present Kedah province, but strengthened their position more in the kingdom of Kadarem.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

Ththodukadal kaaval kadumuran Kadaaramum......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

".......To him was born the son, the king named Mathuranthaha who was the punisher of the insubordinate and who.....with (the help) of his forces which crossed seas, which were excessively powerful in arms and which had scattered away the armies of all his enemies he burnt Kataha that could not be set on fire by others what is impossible for this Rajendra Chola!...."

Inscription of Virarajendra Chola in the Bahawathi Amman shrine at Agatheseswarem temple in Kanyakumari district, Tamil nadu India
Travancore Archeological Series vol 111, Part 1, No 41

".......Rajendra Chola ......having conquered Kataha with his valiant forces that had crossed the ocean, having made all kings bow down to this (king) protected the whole earth for a long time.....'

Copper plates of Rajendra Chola - 1 of Thiruvalankadu temple, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India.
South Indian Inscriptions - Vol 111, Part 111, No.205

"......the king Mathuranthahan......crossed the ocean and attacked vehemently the Kadaarem......"

Copper Plates of Rajendra Chola - 1 of Thiribhuwanamadevi Chathurvedimangalam in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Polil - Vol 33 (1957)

".......Hail Prosperity! In the twenty nineth year of king Parakesarivamar alias Udaiyar Sri Rajendra Choladevar who conquered Purvadesam, Gangai, and Kadarem......"

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1 in the inner sanctum of Koneriswarer Temple at Agatheeswarem in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, India.
Kanyakumari Inscriptions - edited by Nadana Kasinathan, Part 1, No 1968/120

".......the same person obtained lands for the temple from the king's (Rajathiraja Chola's) father who was pleased to take the Purvadesam, Gangai and Kidarem...."

inscription of Rajathiraja Chola - 1 at Thiruvenkadu temple in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu.
Annual Report in Epigraphy (Madra) b- 1918, No.450

"......also gifts in year twenty seven of Periyadevar who conquered Purvadesam, Gangai, and Kadarem and in year thirty one of Rajathiraja....."

Inscription if Rajathiraja Chola in Thiruvaiyar temple, Thanjavur district, Tamilnadu, India.
South Indian Inscriptions - Vol v, No 520

"......ayyar who took Gangai, Purvadesam and Kadarem....."

Inscription of Virarajendra in front of the central shrine of Thiruttalisvara temple at Thirupputur, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu.
Annual Report on Epigraphy (Madras) - 1908, 110

".......gifted by Ulagudaiyal queen of (one) who took Gangai, Kidarem and Purvadesam....."

Inscription of Rajendra chola - 1 on the central shrine in Ammanathaswami temple at Seramadevi in Tinnevely district, Tamil Nadu.
Annual Report on Ephigraphy - 1916, No 623

".......the Sembiyan captured Kadaarem with cold clear wavy roaring sea and kept the country under his rule......"

Kalingaththu Parani - by Jeyamkondaar, edited by Puliyuur Kesikan, chapter 8, page 104.

".......with mace captured the river Ganga and Kadaarem, and lived in Gangapuri the glorious (king)......."

Vikkramacholan Ulaa - by Ottakkoothther, line 34 to 36, Saiva Siddhantha Kalakam Publication

".......the Sembiyar king who captured the river Ganga and Kadaarem and occupied the throne.....'

Kulothungancholan Ulaa - by Ottakkoothther, line 49 & 50, Saiva Siddhantha Kalakam publication

".......like the lion which attacked the elepant captured Kadaarem and Gangai and occupied the lion throne......"

Sangara Rajendra Cholan Ulaa - edited by Ki. Vaa. Jeganaathan line 18 & 19, Saiva Siddhantha Kalakam publication

".......Saavakam erinthu Arumanam poruthu sinthath thakarththu Malayuurin uruva purisai thalli
Koaham nekilnthu kulayumpadi Kadaarem kollum oru Cholan marukaa !......'

Kulothungan Pillai Thamil - by Ottakkooththar, edited by T.S.Gangatharan, verse 92 Thanjavur Sarawathi Mahal Library publication

Chola forces capture Ilangasokam of south Thailand

From Kadarem the forces moved in the eastern direction heading to Ilangasokam (Lankasuka) approximately encompassing the present Songkhla, Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat states of present south Thailand. Chola forces captured Illangasokam and installed another prince as viceroy of this kingdom.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......kalangaa valvinai Ilangaasokamum.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Valaipanthur in north peninsular Malaysia

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......vilaip panthurudai Valaipanthurum.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Maayirudingam in south Malaysia

Chola forces continued with their expedition and moved towards the south of peninsular Malaysia and captured Maayirudingham surrounded by deep sea. They destroyed the fortress named Klenggiu (Glang Gui) near the tributory Lenggui of the Johore river and defeated the ruling king Chulin of this region and gained much wealth from this kingdom. Rajendra Chola -1's grandson was offered the daughter Puteri Onangki (Onang Kiu) of the king Chulin of Maayirudingam whom he married. Subsequently this unit of forces returned to Kadarem by sea to join the other two units of the Chola forces.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......aal kadal ahal sool Maa-Yirudingamum.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Thalai-Thakkolam on the west of south Thailand

The third unit of Chola forces reached Thalai-Thakkolam (Takua-pa) approximately covering the present Krabi, Phangnga and Surat Thani states of upper south ThaThe above are confirmed by the following References:

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......kalai thakkoar pukalth Thalai-Thakkolamum.....maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Chola forces capture Ma-Thamaling on the east of south Thailand

Then they headed towards the east Ma-Thamaling (Tambaralinga) approximately covering the present Nakhon Sri Thamarat and Phatthalung states of south Thailand. The Chola fores moved back to Kadarem which was joined by the fleet that returned from the Sumatran expedition.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"....... theethamar valvinai Maa-Thamaalingamum.......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

The Chola forces capture Ma-Pappaalam their return to Chola country

The joint forces on their return to Chola country captured the Ma-Pappalam of present Pegu region of Miyanmar (former Burma) where they planted their "Jeyathambam" and returned to Nagapattinam of Chola country.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

".......kaappuru nirai punal Maa-Pappaalamum.......maa perum thandaatkonda Ko Parakesaripanmaraana Udaiyaar Sri Rajendra Chola Thevarkku aandu....."

Inscription of Rajendra Chola - 1
South Indian Inscription Vol 1, Inscription No: 66, page 98.

Aftermath of the fall of Sri Vijaya empire

With the fall of Sri Vijaya which was an important centre of Buddhist learning in South-East Asia under the great Buddhist teacher Acharya Dharmakirti (alias Dharmapala) probably underwent disturbed conditions which curtailed the activities of the centre.

His great deciple Dipankara Attisa who came to Sri Vijaya in A.D.1012 from North India to learn Buddhism under him, after twelve years of learning left to India in the year A.D 1025 not withstandng the troubled conditions that befell the country. The fate of the Acharya Dharmakirti (alias Dharmapala) and the monastry was unknown.

It appears certain conquered teritories have been handed back to native kings who accepted the suzeranty of the Cholas and agreed to pay tributes. Thus all countries which were under the sway of the Sri Vijaya empire of South-East Asia came under the overlordship of the mighty Cola empire of Tamil Nadu, India.

Sri Vijaya trade with China controlled by Cholas

At Sri Vijaya the ruling Chola viceroy of Rajendra with a view of renewing the trade relations between China and Sri Vijaya sent an embassy to China in the year A.D.1028. This embassy was shown unusual honours by the Chinese emperor Jen Chung (A.D.1023-1064) in recognition of the mighty fame of Rajendra Chola - 1.

Commemoration of Chola victory over Kaadarem and Sri Vijaya in Tamil Nadu

To Cholas their conquer of Kadaarem was that which gave them the satisfaction of a great achievement inspite of their victory over many South-East Asian countries.

Rajendra Chola - 1 commemorating this great victory over Kadaarem of Malaysia assumed to himself the title as 'Kadaarem kondaan'. A village known as Punjai near Mayilaaduthurai in Nagapattinam district, and another village near Thuraiyur in Thiruvarur district were named after his title as "Kadaarem kondaan".

He to further commemorate this great event in the Chola history, also issued gold coins with his title 'Kadaarem kondaan' inscribed on them.

The grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1 who lead the Kadaarem expediion successfully on behalf of him was given the title 'Kadaaremkonda Cholan' the Chola who conquered Kadaarem. He to commemorate this victory renamed a village at Pasalinadu in Manayirkottam - the present Perambakkam region in south Thiruvallur District of Tamil Nadu as 'Kadaaremkonda Cholapuram'. It was in the village Narasinghapuram of this region the then Mathurantaka Nallur Aalvar temple the present Narasimha Perumal temple exits today.

The region of Thondaimaanaartruur in Jeyamkondacholamandalam the present Kalahasti of Andhara Pradesh there had been another village named as Kadaaremkonda Cholapuram.

There had been yet another region named as Kidaaremkonda (Kadaaremkonda) Cholapuram in the former Thaanava Nadu, a region which had been at the boundry of present Keeramangalam in the Pudukkoattai region of Tamil Nadu.

There had been a village named as Kidaaremkonda (Kadaaremkonda) Chola Nallur which has been a boundry of the former region of Aakkur Nadu of Jayamkonda Cholavala Nadu the present Mayavaram region of the Thanjavur Mawattam of Tamil Nadu.

Also there had been a highway named as Kidaaremkonda (Kadaaremkonda) Chola Perumtheru at Vikkramacholapuram in the close proximity to the present Vikkrama Choliswarer temple in the Udaiyaar Paalayam in the Perambalur Maawattam of the Thiruvalluur district in Tamil Nadu.

Rajendra Chola - 1 in recognition of the military services rendered by the Chola General Chola Brahmaraayer who lead one wing of the expedition to South-East Asia was decorated with the title Kadaaremkonda Chola Brahmaraayer after the war possibly in the year A.D.1025. Rajendra Chola - 1 towards the end of his rule in A.D.1044 before his death, to reward further his Senai Naayagam (Chief Military General) for his great military services provided during his period of rule gave him a new title as Rajendra Chola Brammaraayer, and gifted a kingdom within his own empire known as Thadigaivali (Thadikaipaadi) alias Vikkramachola mandalam the present Devanahalli and Hosakote regions in Karnataka State, as a life time endowment (Jivitham) to him. In the village Alur of this region a temple and a water tank was also built during this period.

Rajendra Chola - 1 in recognition of the loyal service to him by one of his high officers named Muvenda Velaar belonging to his "udankoottam" (accompanying high Officers), gave a title with 'Kadaaremkonda Chola' prefixed to his own name as Kadaaremkonda Chola Muvenda Velaar

Further to celebrate this victory a Siva temple was built at the village Karaivali Valliyur at Paduvurkottam the present Gudimallur of Walajapet in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu, and was named as 'Kadaaremkonda Choliswaramudaiya Naayanar Koyil' the present Bhumisvara temple.

Cholas further to mark their triumph over Sri Vijaya built another Siva temple at Merkunadu a subdivision of Rajadhiraja valanadu, and named it as 'Vijayamkonda Choliswarem Udaiyar Koyil'. This temple was at the northern boundry of Merkunadu during which time there also existed in the central region of Merkunadu a temple named as Vaanavanmathevi Vinnakar Aalvar which is the present Kadambavaneswara temple at Erumbur in Cuddalore district (Kadalur mavattam) of Tamil Nadu.

Airlangga becomes the overlord of entire Java Island

During the first expedition of Rajendra Chola - 1 in A.D.1025 Java didnot draw the attention and interest of the aggresive Cholas. Airlangga since then gradually conquered all other kingdoms in the east, central and west Java and celebrated his victory in the year A.D.1037 on the Karththikai Natchaththiram day as the great emperor of the island Java seated in his jewelled throne and rejoicing his great achievement.

The reference to same in this inscription is as follows:

"......matinggal tanaya dara tkaring rajadrabya rajawahana prakara, rika hlema nya irikang Saka kala 959 (959 + 78 = A.D.1038) repmanusup haji ri kapang mwang balanira samasih ri sira, kawnangta sira ri sarasarata wanipa pangan ha s panaka ta pa kan kanda sira de de Sri Maharaja apalinggih moloda ri singhasana sampan sangksipta ikang pralaya ri Yawadwipa....."

Inscription of Airlangga from Pukangan Hyang in East- Java (Reading version - 2)
Oud-Javaansche Ookonden - Nagelaten Transscripties, van wijlen Dr. J.L,Brandes, Uitgegeven door Dr. N.J.Krom - page 1393.

".......in the year 959 (959 + 78 = A.D.1038) the lord of the Sakas on the new moon day of Kartika on Thursday the noble and illustrious king of the island of Java set himself on his jewelled throne with his feet placed on the heads of his enemies and is now rejoicing in his victory. And now the Royal fortune unable to fing anybody else, pressing with her fair armies deeply embraces Airlanggadeva who has conquered all the directions, east and others who has destroyed all his enemies, and who has now become the paramount ruler of the whole earth......"

Inscription of Airlangga from Pucangan, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. (Reading version - 1)
India & Java - Part 2 (Texts of) Inscriptions, page 72, verse 15 & 16

Airlangga constructs an hermitage in East Java

To comemorate this event in accordance with his vow that he would build a hermitage should he be able to vanquish all his enemies, Airlangga built a hermitage in the year A.D. 1037 named as "Sri Vijayasrama" (Sri Vijaya + Asrama) indicating his connection to the royal family of the Sri Vijaya empire of Sumatra, by he marrying the Sri Vijaya Princess Sri Sangiramawijaya Dharmaprasadottungadevi.

The reference to same in this inscription is as follows:

[color=grey]''.......Naksatra Aswadewata tiyoga wawakarana bayabyamanda ka diwacanyyajna Sri Mawangsa Airlanggananta Wikkramotungadeva tinadah de raryan mahamantri i hino Sri Sangiramawijaya Dharmaprasotungadevi.......singhassana hadha karananyan sinaksat krtakenira prayojananira ginawayira patapan inaranan "Sri Vijaya Asrama" in sira ri samarakaryya kunang lwirnikkanang lmah i Turan Hyang cinusu paduka Sri Maharaja mangalor pangidulniya dpa 118 hinganya lori nya ki....."

Inscription of Airlangga from Turan Hyang in East- Java
Oud-Javaansche Ookonden - Nagelaten Transscripties, van wijlen Dr. J.L,Brandes, Uitgegeven door Dr. N.J.Krom - page 143. [/color

Discussion:

Here we note Airlangga has named the Ashrama he built as 'Sri Vijaya Ashrama" possibly in honour and memory of the great empire of Sumatra namely the Sri Vijaya. Here it is very clear he had some connection with the Sri Vijayan empire long before he became the emperor of whole of Java in A.D.1037. Hence this goes further to prove that the Sangiraama Vijaya Dharmaprasadotunggadevi was "undoubtedly" the daughter of the emperor Sangirama Vijayotungavarman of Sri Vijaya was married to Airlangga in A.D.1021, in which year she was given the title and power as his "Mahamantiri (chief minister) Hino" as she was his Queen in East-Java, long before Rajendra Chola's forces captured Sri Vijaya.

Rajendra Chola's forces invaded Sri Vijaya in the year A.D.1025. Hence it is very clear that Airlangga was only 25 years of age (A.D1025 - A.D.1000), and could not have been in a position at that time to assist his father-in-law at Sri Vijaya when the emperor Sangirama Vijayotungavarman was defeated and captured by the Cholas.

The Chola trade with Java

However there had been good relations between Java and Chola empire during the of Airlanga. Tamil traders flocked to the Javan ports which were located in the vicinity of the present Surabaya and Tuban in Java, and they were from the Chola country, Pandiya country and the Dravida which was the Thondai mandalam all being Tamil districts forming parts of the Chola empire.

[color=olive]The above are confirmed by the following References:[color]

(4) The period of Rajathiraja Chola - 1 (A.D.1044-1053)

Emperor Rajendra Chola - 1 demised in th year A.D.1044 and his son Emperor Rajathiraja Chola - 1 (A.D.1018 -1054) ascended the throne of the Chola empire.

At the time Rajathiraja Chola - 1 inherited the Chola Empire from his father the Rajendra Chola - 1 in the year A.D.1044, and the extent of the Chola Empire virtually remained same for 19 - years from the time of Rajendra Chola - 1 who formed this empire in the year A.D.1025 with Mahothai (present Kodungallur of Kerala) in the west, Ilangai (the present Sri Lanka) in the south, Gangai in the north and the Kadaarem (the present Kedah & Perak regions of peninsular Malaysia) in the east.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

"......Svasti Sri Thingaler peravalar angkathir kadavul tholkulam vilangath thontri malkiya vada thisai Gangaiyum then thisai Ilangaiyum, kuda thisai Makothayum kuna thisai Kadaaramum thandinil konda thaathai than mandalam venkudai nilalena than kudai nilattri thisai thorum sengol otchchi.......Kovirasakesaripanmaraana udaiyar Sri Rajathirasthevarkku aandu......"

South Indian Inscription - Vol 5, page 252, Ins no: 633

The Malay off-springs of the grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1 who invaded Kadarem

The grandson of Rajendra Chola - 1 (named Raja Shulan in Malay Chronicles) who married 'Putri Gangga' the daughter of the king of Kadaaram the Lingi Johan (also known as Ganggi Juana) had three sons Bichitram, Palidutani and Nilumanam. Around A.D.1050 Rajendra Chola - 1's grandson appointed his own son Palidutani as viceroy king at Sri Vijaya, the son Nilumanam to the country Chandukani (also known as Chandragiri a region in Andhra pradesh)

The grandson of Rajendra Chola -1 who married 'Onang Kiu' daughter of the king Chulin, had a daughter by her named 'Putiri Chendani Wasis'. She was given in marriage to king Suran and had three sons by him. Around this same period around A.D.1050 the eldest being Jiran was given the region Chandragiri Nagara (Thiruppathi region - former Thondai Mandalam of medieval period Tamil Nadu) of north Chola country to rule as a viceroy. His second son king Chulan was adopted by the grandfather on his mother's side. The third son king Pandayan was given the Nagapattinam region to be ruled as a viceroy.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

Airlangga divides his kingdom among his two sons

With Airlangga becoming the king of the entire island of Java, Sri Samarawijaya Dharmasuparnnawahana Tguh Uttungadeva(A.D.1042-1068) the son of Airlangga by his first queen - the princess from Sri Vijaya, was made the next 'mahamantri' of the Javan kingdom. However there had been some dissention over same with his second (step) son Sri Maharaja Mapanji Garasakan - son of Airlangga by his second queen - the princess from Bali island.

This lead king Airlangga to divide his Javan kingdom into two in the year A.D.1042 with the western half being the kingdom of Panjalu (subsequently known as the kingdom of Kediri) given to his elder son Samarawijaya Tguh Uttungadeva and the eastern half being Janggala to his younger son Garasakan, and chose to abidicate his throne in preference to a hermit life. He after seven years of his life as a hermit died in the year A.D.1049.

Chola trade with Java

However there had been good relations between Java and Chola empire during the rule of Airlanga. Tamil traders flocked to the Javan ports which were located in the vicinity of the present Surabaya and Tuban, and they were rom the Chola country, Paandiya country and the Dravida which was the Thondai mandalam, all being regions of Tamil districts under Chola empire.

The above are confirmed by the following References:

(5) The period of Rajendra Chola - 2 (A.D.1051-1063)

In the year A.D.1051 Rajadhiraja Chola - 1 died in a battle field in the Indian mainland while on war with westen Chalukiyas in the Indian mainland, where his younger brother Rajendra Chola - 2 (A.D.1051-1063) immediately proclaimed himself as the successor to the Chola throne ans lead the war to a victory.

Honorary appointment for Chola Prince who captured Kadaarem

During his rule he appointed his son who conquered Kadarem earlier and was given the title as Kadaremkonda Cholan during the rule of his father the Rajendra Chola - 1, as the viceroy of Mithilanagar a part of present Bihar in North India with the title Chola Janakarajan.

During this same period Rajendra Chola - 2 appointed his grandson Palidutani son named Demang Lebar Dawn (earlier known as , as the next successor to the throne at Sri Vijaya under Chola suzerainty.

Airlanga's son plans to capture the lost territories of Sri Vijaya

Airlanga with his final nine years of his lifetime spent as hermit demised in A.D.1048. After his death his ambitious eldest son Samarawijaya Tguh Uttungadeva who ruled West Java from Panjulu alias Daha (the present Kediri) planned to conquer the former territories of the Sri Vijaya empire. He had a legitimate claim over Sri Vijaya through his maternal grandfather Sangirama Vijayotungavarman who was the previous king of the empire

His strategy of capturing the lost territories of the former Sri Vijaya went on unhampered, as during this period Rajendra Chola - 2 diverted most of their attention on internal wars in the Indian mainland and in Sri Lanka to prevent the Chola empire from disintegrating

(6) The period of Virarajendra Chola (A.D.1063-1070)

In the year A.D.1063 emperor Rajendra Chola - 2 demised, and his younger brother Virarajendra Chola (A.D.1063-1070) ascended the throne as the next successor to the Chola empire.

Ambitious expedition of the son of Airlangga

Taking the death of emperor Rajendra Chola - 2 in Chola country, the king of Kediri kingdom in Java[/u] the Samarawijaya Tguh Uttungadeva sent an expedition A.D.1064 to Sri Vijaya which was captured, and the other Sumatran kingdoms too submitted to the new Javan conquerer. He further penetrated into peninsular Malaysia where some kingdoms fell and Kadaram too was captured and it's king escaped to Chola country.

Chinese recognise Cholas as vassels of Sri Vijaya

The successful expedition of the Airlanga's son and his claim to the Sri Vijaya throne could have possibly made him to declare himself as the emperor of Sri Vijaya, but with his seat of reign still at Panjalu (Kediri) in Java. This probably made the Chinese to recognise the Cholas as vassels of the Sri Vijaya thereafter.

King of Kadarem seeks military aid from the Chola country

With the capture of the kingdom of Kadarem by the son of Airlanga of Java, it's king a Chola viceroy escaped to Chola country and requested the emperor Virarajendra to provide military assistance in his efforts to regain his kingdom.

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