[JANALA]

I briefly mentioned this essay by the historian and Pali scholar Professor Richard Gombrich (who is not a Buddhist himself) in a topic about 'Pure Abodes' we had in our Beyond Belief forum about a year and a half ago, but there was no actual discussion about it.

I thought that our members who are familiar with the Pali Canon suttas and can give references from them, might possibly like to discuss the essay here in our Theravada forum and give their opinion.

"Kindness and Compassion as a means to Nirvana in Early Buddhism"


http://www.ocbs.org/images/documents/gonda.pdf



Note

This topic is unsuitable for beginners to Buddhism.


Thanks

[Sniliabiz]

Here is Bhikkhu Bodhi's review of this argument: In an extended discussion of the Tevijja Sutta (DN No. 13) he contrasts the Buddha's description of the four divine abodes (brahma-vihāra) as the "path to union with Brahmā" with the Upanishadic dictum that the way to attain brahman is through knowledge of the true self. This, he says, once again illustrates the distinction between the ethical standpoint of Buddhism and the ontological orientation of brahminism. So far, so good. But Gombrich then goes on to argue that for the Buddha "union with Brahmā" is simply a metaphor for Nibbāna, and thus he concludes "the Buddha taught that kindness ... was a way to salvation" (p. 62). Such an inference, however, cannot stand, for in many texts the Buddha declares the divine abodes to be inadequate for attaining Nibbāna (e.g. DN 17, MN 83, MN 97, etc.); it would also mean that paññā, insight or wisdom, is not needed for final liberation. Gombrich is not unaware of the texts that contradict his position, but he casually dismisses them as the work of "the compilers of other suttas" (p. 61). The contrary evidence, however, is just too weighty to allow such an easy way out. I'm not sure adding to Sutta citations is going to help here, as both sides seem to have some support. Nevertheless, I note that within SN 46.*, in the Suttas towards the end, the seven factors of enlightenment are connected to each of the brahmaviharas as well as anapanasati. This tells me that both the brahamaviharas as well as anapanasati are able to be used for the elimination of the hindrances and the development of the factors, which also means that brahmavihara practice is capable of supporting panna.

[poulaMahmah]

Thanks for contributing to the discussion, Dave. Its good to see you again !

I realise that it isn't a very recent work of his, but I'm curious about the response there was/is to Gombrich's essay, from Buddhists who were/are familiar with the suttas.

Do you have a link to Bhikkhu Bodhi's review, please ?

[kristloken]

Here is the full review, which covers aspects of the book not present in the OP.

---

I wonder what sort of responses it will all receive.

[Nicihntm]

Nevertheless, I note that within SN 46.*, in the Suttas towards the end, the seven factors of enlightenment are connected to each of the brahmaviharas as well as anapanasati. This tells me that both the brahamaviharas as well as anapanasati are able to be used for the elimination of the hindrances and the development of the factors, which also means that brahmavihara practice is capable of supporting panna.

greetings Daverupa

upon a swift review, the brahmaviharas are mentioned often in Chapter 46, however, generally in relation to abandoning the hindrance of ill-will. SN 46.29 accompanies each factor of enlightenment with 'exalted, measureless, without-ill' mind. but Bhikkhu Bodhi's translation is in error here, where he uses "release" for "vossaggapariṇāmiṃ". Vossagga is 'relinquishment' rather than 'release' (vimutti). SN 46.29 concludes saying with enlightenment factors developed, "he penetrates & sunders" the mass of greed, the mass of hatred & the mass of delusion. thus brahmaviharas here appear to remain factors of concentration, given the act of "penetration" is wisdom.

SN 46.54 conclusively concludes: "The liberation of mind by loving-kindness has the beautiful as its culmination for a bhikkhu who has not penetrated to a superior liberation". Thus, it appears unambiguously clear there is a liberation superior to liberation by loving-kindness.

Gombrich seems to err in regarding the term "ceto-vimutti" to be a synonym for Nibbana. MN 43 lists five kinds of "ceto-vimutti", namely, liberation of mind by the 4th jhana, liberation of mind by the brahmaviharas , liberation of mind by the sphere of nothingness, liberation of mind by the signless and liberation of mind by sunnata (emptiness). MN 43, consistant with the suttas, declares liberation of mind by sunnata to be foremost, to be unprovoked (unshakeable) and to be synonymous with Nibbana, that is, empty of greed, empty of hatred & empty of delusion.

The body of suttas is consistent throughout and "union with Brahmā" is naturally not a metaphor for Nibbāna. In short, there is no need to reinvent the wheel regarding this matter.


With metta



Kati panāvuso, paccayā adukkhamasukhāya cetovimuttiyā samāpattiyā’’ti?

Friend, how many conditions are there for the attainment of the neither-pleasant-nor-painful awareness-release?

Friend, there are four conditions for the attainment of the neither-pleasant-nor-painful awareness-release. There is the case where a monk, with the abandoning of pleasure & stress — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain. These are the four conditions for the attainment of the neither-pleasant-nor-painful awareness-release.

****

Yā cāyaṃ, āvuso, appamāṇā cetovimutti, yā ca ākiñcaññā cetovimutti, yā ca suññatā cetovimutti, yā ca animittā cetovimutti

The limitless [Brahma-Vihara] awareness-release, the nothingness awareness-release, the emptiness awareness-release, the theme-less-awareness-release

MN 43 the unprovoked awareness-release is declared the foremost. And this unprovoked awareness-release is empty of passion, empty of aversion, empty of delusion.

cetovimutti suññā rāgena, suññā dosena, suññā mohena.

MN 43
That, friend, which is the destruction of greed, hate and delusion that is Nibbana”

SN 38:1.

[amimabremiBit]

It is clear that the brahmaviharas don't seem to be up to the task of taking a practitioner to nibbana, but it also seems clear that they function quite strongly, opening the door to the jhanas and the formless attainments. Therefore, they seem to be part of the foundation of Sila so essential to Samadhi; indeed, in the Digha Nikaya we find Sila and Panna likened to two hands or two feet which wash each other, and we also find "endurance, harmlessness, and a mind of kindness and sympathy" yoked to satipatthana practice at SN 47.19.

[freflellalafe]

It is clear that the brahmaviharas don't seem to be up to the task of taking a practitioner to nibbana, but it also seems clear that they function quite strongly, opening the door to the jhanas and the formless attainments. Therefore, they seem to be part of the foundation of Sila so essential to Samadhi;

hi Dave

For me, this is just theory, akin to 'old wives tales'. It is a kind of 'bait' or 'carrot' to encourage devotees to do good.

In reality, there is no need to actively or consciously practise brahmaviharas to develop sila & samadhi. Whilst it is true sila is based on non-harming or non-cruelty, there is no need to actively or consciously practise: "May all beings be free from suffering". Instead, harming is simply abandoned; foresaken.

Whilst it is true samadhi is based on the absence of the hindrance of ill-will, there is no need to actively or consciously practise: "May all beings be happy, free from hostility" etc. Instead, ill-will is simply abandoned; foresaken.

Although metta & non-ill will seem to be the same, they can be subtlely different, which is why Buddha included "abandoning ill-will" rather than "developing metta" in his 2nd path factor.

However, when the mind has mastered abandoning ill-will, it certainly develops commensurate metta, but a natural metta born of abandonment rather than an intentional metta born of cultivation.

As Buddha taught, intentionally cultivating metta leads to the 'beautiful' and is like a Vajrayana practise. One that consciously practises metta has a more beautiful outward/social disposition, liking smiling Christians or Tibetans. But such practise is not necessary for sila and samadhi because the suttas predominantly teach the abandoning of the five hindrances (including ill-will) is necessary for samadhi.

Thus Brahmaviharas do not directly open 'doors' of jhana because the door of jhana is opened by an absence of thought. The door of jhana is opened by stillness. The suttas state:

And as I remained thus heedful, ardent & resolute, thinking imbued with non-ill will arose in me. I discerned that 'Thinking imbued with non-ill will has arisen in me; and that leads neither to my own affliction, nor to the affliction of others nor to the affliction of both. It fosters discernment, promotes lack of vexation & leads to Unbinding. If I were to think & ponder in line with that even for a night... even for a day... even for a day & night, I do not envision any danger that would come from it, except that thinking & pondering a long time would tire the body. When the body is tired, the mind is disturbed; and a disturbed mind is far from concentration.' So I steadied my mind right within, settled, unified & concentrated it. Why is that? So that my mind would not be disturbed.

And as I remained thus heedful, ardent, & resolute, thinking imbued with harmlessness arose in me. I discerned that 'Thinking imbued with harmlessness has arisen in me; and that leads neither to my own affliction, nor to the affliction of others, nor to the affliction of both. It fosters discernment, promotes lack of vexation & leads to Unbinding. If I were to think & ponder in line with that even for a night... even for a day... even for a day & night, I do not envision any danger that would come from it, except that thinking & pondering a long time would tire the body. When the body is tired, the mind is disturbed; and a disturbed mind is far from concentration.' So I steadied my mind right within, settled, unified, & concentrated it. Why is that? So that my mind would not be disturbed.

Unflagging persistence was aroused in me and unmuddled mindfulness established. My body was calm & unaroused, my mind concentrated & single [citta ekaggata]. Quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful mental qualities, I entered & remained in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by vitakka & vicara. With the stilling of vitakka & vicara, I entered & remained in the second jhana: rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness free from vitakka & vicara— internal assurance. With the fading of rapture I remained in equanimity, mindful & alert and physically sensitive of pleasure. I entered & remained in the third jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.' With the abandoning of pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — I entered & remained in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain.

MN 19 in short, if we practise Brahmaviharas and, alternately, practise abandonment (letting go), we can test which leads to jhana.

kind regards

And what is the faculty of concentration? There is the case where a monk, a disciple of the noble ones, making it his object to let go, attains concentration, attains singleness of mind.

SN 48.9 & 10

[Stoottnoiciek]

Although metta & non-ill will seem to be the same, in reality can be subtlely different, which is why Buddha included "abandoning ill-will" rather than "developing metta" in his 2nd path factor.

for example, stock phrases for the path include the following:

Now, there is the case where a Tathāgata appears in the world...He teaches the Dhamma...He [the person discussed above], hearing the Dhamma, gains conviction in the Tathāgata and reflects: 'Household life is confining, a dusty path. What if I, having shaved off my hair & beard and putting on the ochre robe, were to go forth from the household life into homelessness?'

When he has thus gone forth, endowed with the monks' training & livelihood, then — abandoning the taking of life — he abstains from the taking of life. He dwells with his rod laid down, his knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings.

Abandoning the taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking what is not given. He takes only what is given, accepts only what is given, lives not by stealth but by means of a self that has become pure. This, too, is part of his virtue.

Abandoning uncelibacy, he lives a celibate life, aloof, refraining from the sexual act that is the villager's way.

Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech. He speaks the truth, holds to the truth, is firm, reliable, no deceiver of the world.

Abandoning divisive speech he abstains from divisive speech. What he has heard here he does not tell there to break those people apart from these people here. What he has heard there he does not tell here to break these people apart from those people there. Thus reconciling those who have broken apart or cementing those who are united, he loves concord, delights in concord, enjoys concord, speaks things that create concord.

Abandoning abusive speech, he abstains from abusive speech. He speaks words that are soothing to the ear, that are affectionate, that go to the heart, that are polite, appealing and pleasing to people at large.

Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains from idle chatter. He speaks in season, speaks what is factual, what is in accordance with the goal, the Dhamma, and the Vinaya. He speaks words worth treasuring, seasonable, reasonable, circumscribed, connected with the goal.

He abstains from damaging seed & plant life.

He eats only once a day, refraining from the evening meal and from food at the wrong time of day.

He abstains from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and from watching shows.

He abstains from wearing garlands and from beautifying himself with scents & cosmetics.

He abstains from high and luxurious beds & seats.

He abstains from accepting gold & money.

He abstains from accepting uncooked grain... raw meat... women & girls... male & female slaves... goats & sheep... fowl & pigs... elephants, cattle, steeds, & mares... fields & property.

He abstains from running messages... from buying & selling... from dealing with false scales, false metals, & false measures... from bribery, deception, & fraud.

He abstains from mutilating, executing, imprisoning, highway robbery, plunder, and violence.

Abandoning covetousness with regard to the world, he dwells with an awareness devoid of covetousness. He cleanses his mind of covetousness. Abandoning ill will & anger, he dwells with an awareness devoid of ill will, sympathetic with the welfare of all living beings. He cleanses his mind of ill will & anger. Abandoning sloth & drowsiness, he dwells with an awareness devoid of sloth & drowsiness, mindful, alert, percipient of light. He cleanses his mind of sloth & drowsiness. Abandoning restlessness & anxiety, he dwells undisturbed, his mind inwardly stilled. He cleanses his mind of restlessness & anxiety. Abandoning uncertainty, he dwells having crossed over uncertainty, with no perplexity with regard to skillful mental qualities. He cleanses his mind of uncertainty.

Having abandoned these five hindrances — imperfections of awareness that weaken discernment — then, quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful qualities, he enters and remains in the first jhāna....

MN 38 the manner & extent to which non-cruelty & non-ill-will are practised above is not the same as in other suttas when the Brahma Vihara are practised at the completion of the path (as Vajrayana-like social values), where the Brahma Vihara are radiated in all directions.

As Acharya Buddhaghosa skillfully pointed out in his Visuddhimagga, the Brahma Vihara have 'near enemies' and 'far enemies'. The near enemies of the Brahma Vihara are worldly emotions such as affection, sorrow, rejoicing & indifference. In short, most of these emotions are based in filial love (pema; piya) rather than pure metta. The near enemies are based in self views.

Personally, I am yet to read a sutta where Buddha taught practising Brahma-Vihara for directly entering jhana. For example, SN 46.54 is a teaching in response to the Brahma Vihara practised by other sects, who did not accompany the Brahma Vihara with the factors of enlightenment.

Imo, for most, practising Brahma-Vihara exclusively may not lead to the abandoning of 'self-views', which is the prequisite for path entry. For most, practising Brahma-Vihara exclusively may not lead to the abandoning of the perception of 'beings'. Thus, the short-coming of Brahma-Vihara, for the non-stream-enterer, is it can keep the mind stuck in putthujjanaism.

Thus, cultivating Brahma-Vihara is not necessarily the same as abandonment. Thus, Mahayana includes Vajrayana at the end rather than at the beginning. Vajrayana teaches if emptiness is not realised then practising Vajrayana (i.e., the beautiful qualities of a deity) will result in delusion; in believing: "I am a deity".

Cultivating Brahma-Vihara is similar to 'living' where as abandonment is similar to 'dying'.

Kind regards

[gZAhTyWY]

So, MN 31 mentions the following pro-active expression of metta among advanced monastic practitioners:

"Anuruddha, how do you abide united like milk and water, friendly, without a dispute seeing each other with friendly eyes?"
"Venerable sir, this thought occurs to me, 'It is gain for me that I live with such co-associates in the holy life.' So I abide with bodily actions of loving kindness towards these venerable ones openly and secretly... with verbal actions of loving kindness towards these venerable ones openly and secretly... with mental actions of loving kindness towards these venerable ones openly and secretly. Sometimes it occurs to me, 'what if I discard my thoughts and concede to the thoughts of these venerable ones.' So I discard my thoughts and concede to the thoughts of these venerable ones. Venerable sir, we are various in bodies, and one in mind." Here there is both action and discarding of action, in appropriate ways. The preceding detailed, comprehensive posts by Element seem to focus on the first half of right effort, as I can see by continuing the emphasis on various key terms:

"And what, monks, is right effort?

[i] "There is the case where a monk generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for the sake of the non-arising of evil, unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen.

[ii] "He... exerts his intent for the sake of the abandonment of evil, unskillful qualities that have arisen.

[iii] "He... exerts his intent for the sake of the arising of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen.

[iv] "He... exerts his intent for the maintenance, non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development, & culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen: This, monks, is called right effort." Finally, the connection between satipatthana and kindness, et al, per SN 47.19, is indicative of an active engagement with generating and maintaining skillful qualities, i.e. the second half of right effort - can the brahmaviharas can be considered skillful qualities here? The answer seems obvious, but mileage seems to vary.